LEARNING THEORIES

Reflection by: Gerlie Villanueva L.

 

Table of contents:

Connectionism (Edward Thorndike)

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

Cognitive Learning

Behaviorism (john Watson)

Social Learning Theory

Operant Conditioning (B.F Skinner)

Problem Solving

Discovery Learning (Bruner)

Field theory (Lewin)

Learning curve

Multiple-Intelligence

Experiential theory

Interpersonal Theory

 

 

LEARNING THEORY
Connectionism (Edward Thorndike)

Thorndike meant to distinguish clearly whether or not cats escaping from puzzle boxes were using insight. Thorndike's instruments in answering this question were 'learning curves' revealed by plotting the time it took for an animal to escape the box each time it was in the box. He reasoned that if the animals were showing 'insight,' then their time to escape would suddenly drop to a negligible period, which would also be shown in the learning curve as an abrupt drop; while animals using a more ordinary method of trial and error would show gradual curves. His finding was that cats consistently showed gradual learning.

Edward have three laws the law of effect, readiness, and also the exercise;

Law of effect:

A principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggesting those responses that are closely followed by satisfaction will become firmly attached to the situation and therefore more likely to reoccur when the situation is repeated.

Law of readiness:

Law which states that learning is dependent upon the learner's readiness to act, which facilitates the strengthening of the bond between stimulus and response.

Law of exercise:

This law which states that, in learning, the more frequently a stimulus and response are associated with each other, the more likely the particular response will follow the stimulus. The law implies that one learns by doing and one cannot learn a skill, for instance, by watching others. It is necessary to practice the skill, because by doing so the bond between stimulus and response is strengthened

 

LEARNING THEORY
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

 

There are two competing theories of how classical conditioning works. The first, stimulus-response theory, suggests that an association to the unconditioned stimulus is made with the conditioned stimulus within the brain, but without involving conscious thought. The second theory stimulus-stimulus theory involves cognitive activity, in which the conditioned stimulus is associated to the concept of the unconditioned stimulus, a subtle but important distinction.

Stimulus-response theory, referred to as S-R theory, is a theoretical model of behavioral psychology that suggests humans and other animals can learn to associate a new stimulus- the conditioned stimulus (CS)- with a pre-existing stimulus - the unconditioned stimulus (US), and can think, feel or respond to the CS as if it were actually the US.

The opposing theory, put forward by cognitive behaviorists, is stimulus-stimulus theory (S-S theory). Stimulus-stimulus theory, referred to as S-S theory, is a theoretical model of classical conditioning that suggests a cognitive component is required to understand classical conditioning and that stimulus-response theory is an inadequate model. It proposes that a cognitive component is at play. S-R theory suggests that an animal can learn to associate a conditioned stimulus (CS) such as a bell, with the impending arrival of food termed the unconditioned stimulus, resulting in an observable behavior such as salivation. Stimulus-stimulus theory suggests that instead the animal salivates to the bell because it is associated with the concept of food, which is a very fine but important distinction.

In the area of classroom learning, classical conditioning primarily influences emotional behavior. Things that make us happy, sad, angry, etc. become associated with neutral stimuli that gain our attention. For example, if a particular academic subject or remembering a particular teacher produces emotional feelings in you, those emotions are probably a result of classical conditioning.

 

 

LEARNING THEORY
Cognitive Learning

Cognitive is concerned with the mental events of the student while behaviorism deals primarily with the external conditions that affect the student's behavior. While it is important to consider external or environmental forces and their impact on learning, the teacher must present material so that the student will be able to commit important data to memory. The teacher who accepts all students as initially different will be more successful in conveying material to the class because realizing these difference the teacher will vary teaching methods while presenting the information. Incorporating different perspectives in one lesson will give variety to the students and foster an inquisitive interest by the class as a whole. However, the effective teacher must recognize the mental processes happening in the minds of the students so that the student can be helped in retaining the presented material. 

Memory is defined as "the mental faculty of retaining and recalling past experiences." Memory can be divided into three phases: sensory, short- term, and long-term. Sensory memory is fleeting and momentary lasting for less than one second. It is important for the teacher to realize that while sensory systems (i.e. hearing, smell vision, etc.) are bombarded with an overwhelming amount of information, it is sensory input that is the door to the students memory and, therefore, his learning. The second phase, short- term memory, is working and active but is maintained primarily by rehearsal. Rehearsal means to repeat. This explains why students can review notes before a test, do quite well on the exam, and three days later remember nothing from the material. Short-term memory is limited to approximately seven items in adolescents and higher grade students. However, the younger children will remember far less. "Six-year-old [students] are not likely to remember more than two or three" items in short-term memory Teachers should consider age and maturity levels of students to set reasonable goals for the class. 

Long-term memory is the pot of gold at the end of the rainbow for both the teacher and student. Once information enters sensory memory and processes in short-term memory, it can enter and be organized in this unlimited and highly stable area in the student's mind. Learning has truly taken place when information can be recalled from the student's long-term memory. Using a computer as a metaphor for memory, the short-term phase is RAM (highly volatile and easily lost when something else is entered) while long-term memory is the hard drive or diskette (the information is there even after the machine is turned off). This metaphor is especially helpful because a computer knows the address of each bit of information because of the manner information is entered. It is essential that information placed into a student's long-term memory be linked in a way that the student can retrieve it later. The teacher who understands the relationship between memory and retrieval can gear a lesson plan to assist the student in the process which enhances learning. 

LEARNING THEORY
Behaviorism (john Watson)

Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior.

In addition the behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioral pattern:
Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most popular example is Pavlov’s observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food. Essentially, animals and people are biologically “wired” so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response.
Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley.

There have been many criticisms of behaviorism, including the following:
Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it disregards the activities of the mind.
Behaviorism does not explain some learning–such as the recognition of new language patterns by young children–for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.
Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new information. For instance, a rat can shift its behavior to respond to changes in the layout of a maze it had previously mastered through reinforcements. 

LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.

His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modeling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors.

 

Albert bandura says that:

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action."

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LEARNING THEORY
Operant Conditioning (B.F Skinner)

 

Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. 

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us, such as children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions. In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior, but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors. 

  In addition Classical Conditioning is the type of learning made famous by Pavlov's experiments with dogs. The gist of the experiment is this: Pavlov presented dogs with food, and measured their salivary response (how much they drooled). Then he began ringing a bell just before presenting the food. At first, the dogs did not begin salivating until the food was presented. After a while, however, the dogs began to salivate when the sound of the bell was presented. They learned to associate the sound of the bell with the presentation of the food. As far as their immediate physiological responses were concerned, the sound of the bell became equivalent to the presentation of the food. 

 

 

 LEARNING THEORY
Problem Solving

 

Group problem solving is pervasive in organizations and social policy settings, playing a role in decision making, strategy formulation, the development of new products, services or policies, and adaptation to changing conditions in institutional environments. However, very little is known about either the behavioral processes involved or the factors that affect performance. Recent reviews of the literature on group behavior indicate virtually no empirical

studies of group problem solving Laboratory studies have examined the effect of group size and problem abstractness on group problem solving performance and shown that groups can outperform individuals on the same problems under certain conditions The latter results have been used to justify group rather than individual problem solving strategies in organizations, but their generalizability depends on the characteristics of the problem being solved. For example, a

prominent feature of group problems in organizations is the distribution of information among group members, so communication and the sharing and integration of distributed information are required to reach a solution. Experiments comparing individual and group performance, however, tend to use problem stimuli for which all individuals have access to complete information. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LEARNING THEORY

Discovery Learning (Bruner)

Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction, discovery learning believes that it is best for learners to discover facts and relationships for themselves.

  So discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned. Students interact with the world by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments. As a result, students may be more more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own (in contrast to a transmissions model). Models that are based upon discovery learning model include: guided discovery, problem-based learning, simulation-based learning, case-based learning, incidental learning, among others.

 

LEARNING THEORY

Discovery Learning (Bruner) 

Reflection:

Discovery learning is most noticeable in problem solving situations. The learner calls on their past experience and prior knowledge to discover the new information or skills. It is a personal, internal, constructivist-style learning environment. "Emphasis on discovery in learning has precisely the effect on the learner of leading him to be a constructionist, to organize what he is encountering in a manner not only designed to discover regularity and relatedness, but also to avoid the kind of information drift that fails to keep account of the uses to which information might have to be put."

 

We can apply the discover learning thru encourage students to develop problem-solving strategies for confronting the unknown or unfamiliar. And also by promoting the development of discovery learning courses, laboratories and technology.

 

 

 

LEARNING THEORY

Field theory (Lewin)

 

For Kurt Lewin’s behavior was determined by totality of an individual’s situation. In his field theory, a ‘field’ is defined as ‘the totality of coexisting facts which are conceived of as mutually interdependent’ (Lewin 1951: 240). Individuals were seen to behave differently according to the way in which tensions between perceptions of the self and of the environment were worked through. The whole psychological field, or ‘life space’, within which people acted had to be viewed, in order to understand behavior. Within this individuals and groups could be seen in topological terms (using map-like representations). Individuals participate in a series of life spaces (such as the family, work, school and church), and these were constructed under the influence of various force vectors 

The field theory may seem obvious to us now, but most early psychologist did not believe in behaviorism. Many psychologists at the time believed in the psychoanalytic theory that held human motives to be blind pushes from within. Lewin thought of motives as goal- directed forces. He believed "that our behavior is purposeful; we live in a psychological reality or life space that includes not only those parts of our physical and social environment that are important to us but also imagined states that do not currently exist"

 

LEARNING THEORY

Field theory (Lewin)

Reflection:

The field theory is the "proposition that human behavior is the function of both the person and the environment. This means that one’s behavior is related both to one’s personal characteristics and to the social situation in which one finds oneself.

Lewin’s field theories lead to the development of actual field research on human behavior. His approach has guided experiments in the field of social cognition, social motivation, and group processes. Most importantly Lewin helped develop action research. Action research uses empirical social research, social action, and controlled evaluation.

LEARNING THEORY

Multimedia learning

Multimedia learning is the common name used to describe the cognitive theory of multimedia learning this theory encompasses several principles of learning with multimedia.

When learning with multimedia the brain must simultaneously encode two different types of information, an auditory stimulus and a visual stimulus. One might expect that these competing sources of information would tend to overwhelm or overload the learner. However, psychological research has shown that verbal information is in fact better remembered when accompanied by a visual image. Baddeley and Hitch proposed a theory of working memory in 1974 which has two largely independent subcomponents that tend to work in parallel - one visual and one verbal/acoustic. This allows us to simultaneously process information coming from our eyes and ears. Thus a learner is not necessarily overwhelmed or overloaded by multimodal instruction, and it can in fact be 

Initially the instructional content of these multimedia learning studies was limited to logical scientific processes that centered on cause-and-effect systems like automobile braking systems, how a bicycle pump works, or cloud formation. But eventually it was found that the modality effect could be extended to other domains, which were not necessarily cause-and-effect based systems.

 

LEARNING THEORY

Multimedia learning

Reflection:  

In this Multimedia learning the Students learn better from animation and narration than from animation, narration, and on-screen text."Thus it’s better to eliminate redundant material. This is because learners do not learn as well, when they both hear and see the same verbal message during a presentation

 

 

 

 

 

 

LEARNING THEORY

Learning curve

Learning curves, also called experience curves (Experience curve effects), relate to the much broader subject of natural limits for resources and technologies in general. Such limits generally present themselves as increasing complications that slow the learning of how to do things more efficiently, like the well known limits of perfecting any process or product or to perfecting measurements. These practical experiences match the predictions of the Second law of thermodynamics for the limits of waste reduction generally. Approaching limits of perfecting things to eliminate waste meets geometrically increasing effort to make progress, and provides an environmental measure of all factors seen and unseen changing the learning experience. Perfecting things becomes ever more difficult despite increasing effort despite continuing positive, if ever diminishing, results. The same kind of slowing progress due to complications in learning also appears in the limits of useful technologies and of profitable markets applying to Product life cycle management and software development cycles). Remaining market segments or remaining potential efficiencies or efficiencies are found in successively less convenient forms.

Efficiency and development curves typically follow a two-phase process of first bigger steps corresponding to finding things easier, followed by smaller steps of finding things more difficult. It reflects bursts of learning following breakthroughs that make learning easier followed by meeting constraints that make learning ever harder, perhaps toward a point of cessation.

 

LEARNING THEORY

Learning curve

Reflection:

 

  Learning curve" is used to describe the effort required to acquire a new skill over a specific period of time. If it's a complex task requiring you to reorient your way of thinking as with learning a new software, what makes it a "steep learning curve" in the mental strain of comprehending a new language rather than the time or physical effort involved. The effort to achieve significant progress and sufficient skill to start using a tool may be fairly predictable, but achieving real mastery requiring much more time, effort and making original discoveries about its use.

 

LEARNING THEORY

Multiple-Intelligence  

The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University . It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults. These intelligences are:
 
Linguistic intelligence ("word smart"):

 
Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")

 
Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")

 
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")

 
Musical intelligence ("music smart")

 
Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")

 
Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")

 
Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")


The theory of multiple intelligences proposes a major transformation in the way our schools are run. It suggests that teachers be trained to present their lessons in a wide variety of ways using music, cooperative learning, art activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, inner reflection, and much more The good news is that the theory of multiple intelligences has grabbed the attention of many educators around the country, and hundreds of schools are currently using its philosophy to redesign the way it educates children. The bad news is that there are thousands of schools still out there that teach in the same old dull way, through dry lectures, and boring worksheets and textbooks 

LEARNING THEORY

Multiple-Intelligence  

Reflection:

In this theory If a teacher is having difficulty reaching a student in the more traditional linguistic or logical ways of instruction, the theory of multiple intelligences suggests several other ways in which the material might be presented to facilitate effective learning. Whether you are a kindergarten teacher, a graduate school instructor, or an adult learner seeking better ways of pursuing self-study on any subject of interest, the same basic guidelines apply. 

So those multiple intelligence my help the teacher to facilitate the classroom management.

LEARNING THEORY

Experiential theory

Experiential learning requires no teacher and relates solely to the meaning making process of the individual's direct experience. However, though the gaining of knowledge is an inherent process that occurs naturally, for a genuine learning experience to occur, there must exist certain elements. According to David Kolb, an American educational theorist, knowledge is continuously gained through both personal and environmental experiences. He states that in order to gain genuine knowledge from an experience, certain abilities are required:

The learner must be willing to be actively involved in the experience; The learner must be able to reflect on the experience; The learner must possess and use analytical skills to conceptualize the experience; and The learner must possess decision making and problem solving skills in order to use the new ideas gained from the experience.

For the adult learner especially, experience becomes a "living textbook" to which they can refer. However, as John Dewey pointed out, experiential learning can often lead to "miss-educative experiences." In other words, experiences do not automatically equate learning. The classic example of this is the lecture experience many students have in formal educational settings. While the content of the course might be "physics" the experiential learning becomes "I hate physics." Preferably, the student should have learned "I hate lectures." Experiential learning therefore can be problematic as generalizations or meanings may be misapplied. Without continuity and interaction, experience may actually distort educational growth and disable an otherwise capable learner. There are countless examples of this in prejudice, stereotypes, and other related areas. 

LEARNING THEORY

Experiential theory

Reflection:

Experiential Learning is the process of making meaning from direct experience.

So this experiential learning is about creating an experience where learning can be facilitated. And also the experiential learning is most easily compared with academic learning, the process of acquiring information through the study of a subject without the necessity for direct experience 

 

 

LEARNING THEORY

Interpersonal Theory

Learning in the Interpersonal Development domain supports students to initiate, maintain and manage positive social relationships with a range of people in a range of contexts. It is through the development of positive social relationships that individuals become linked to society, develop a sense of belonging and learn to live and work with others. In a pluralistic, multicultural society such as Australia , with varying interests, values and beliefs, it is essential that individuals learn to participate in groups whose members are from diverse backgrounds. In this domain there is a particular focus on developing students’ capacity to work cooperatively as part of a team as this is widely acknowledged as being a core requirement for success in the workplace and in the community.

Building effective social relationships and relating well to others requires individuals to be empathetic, and to be able to deal effectively with their own emotions and inner moods. It also requires them to be aware of the social conventions and responsibilities that underpin the formation of effective relationships. All social relationships have the potential to create conflict. Students need to develop the skills and strategies to manage and resolve conflict in a sensible, fair and effective manner and not see it as something to avoid or eliminate.

Working cooperatively as part of a team requires the skills outlined above. In addition, it requires individuals to be able to balance commitment to the group and its norms with their own needs. This requires competence in presenting their own ideas and listening to those of others, approaching topics from different viewpoints, and understanding their specific role and responsibilities in relation to those of others and the overall team goal.

LEARNING THEORY

Interpersonal Theory

Reflection:

Interpersonal Intelligence may be defined as the ability to recognize distinctions between other people to know their faces and voices; to react appropriately to their needs, to understand their motives, feelings and moods and to appreciate such perspectives with sensitivity and empathy.

There are many ways in which an individual can enhance Interpersonal Intelligence – but few of them can be done alone! These skills are worth bearing in mind even for that one off occasion where you may need to solve a conflict, or manage a difficult person. Perhaps you just need to practice your listening skills without interrupting!